Coral reefs are considered as priority areas for protection due to their very high species diversity, their uniqueness and their considerable economic importance for the tourist industry and fisheries.

Extensive coral reefs are found in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The dominant reef type is the fringing reef extending almost continuously along the coast. Mostly the fringing reefs are narrow extending only a few tens of metres from the shore. In some areas, especially further south, they commonly extend 1 km to seaward.

The coral reefs in the Gulf of Suez are poorly developed. There are little or no corals in the northern half of the Gulf. From Am Sukhna to the strait of Gubal only patchy fringing reefs are found with a limited coral diversity.

Coral reefs are threatened by small chronic oil spills in particular, but larger acute oil spills may also affect coral reefs. Observed biological impacts of oil spills in reef areas range from mass mortality of fish and invertebrates to apparently no effects.

Generally oil floats over the reef. However oil components may come in contact with corals in a number of ways:

Based on these considerations coral reefs can be ranked with respect to sensitivity as indicated in Table A8. 1.

The extent of coral reefs is shown on the maps in the GIS. Very shallow reefs identified during the field surveys are indicated on the maps. The ranking indicated in Table 8.1 has not been used on the sensitivity maps in the present version of the GIS. The various types of reefs have been ranked equal for the National Contingency Plan, for which the present ranking in the GIS has been prepared. For local plans dealing with smaller areas, further ranking of the various types of reefs should be applied.

Table A8. 1: Sensitivity of various types of coral reefs.

Mangroves are well known for being particularly sensitive to oil spills and are considered as priority areas for protection.

Mangroves are encountered in the Red Sea region, particularly in the southern part. There are only a few isolated mangrove stands in the northern Red Sea. Here the mangroves are at the northern most limits of their range. The dominating mangrove tree in the Red Sea is Avicennia matina.

Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems providing food and shelter for a large number of species. They are important breeding and nursery areas for fish and crustaceans and they are essential habitats for numerous birds.

Mangroves typically grow in more or less anaerobic sediments. They receive oxygen through aerial roots protruding from the sediment surface. There are pores on the -aerial roots through which oxygen passes. This root system makes mangroves highly susceptible to oiling. Oil slicks may enter mangroves when the tide is high and are deposited on the aerial roots and sediment surface as the tide recedes. The pores in the aerial roots become clogged by the oil and, if many roots are oiled, the respiratory system collapses and the trees die. Mangroves can also be killed due to toxic effects of oil components, especially low boiling aromatics. The toxicity of oil gradually decreases because the toxic aromatics evaporate. Toxic effects therefore mainly arise from newly spilled oil.

Oil easily gets trapped in the mangroves and usually persists for a very long time. The oil is subject to microbial degradation which may be a rather rapid process in aerobic environments. However, if the oil is buried within the anaerobic sediments biodegradation proceeds very slowly.

The locations of mangroves are shown on the maps in the GIS and there is a database attached to each mangrove symbol containing information on: site name, geographical coordinates of the site, national legal status, international status and ecological significance of the site.

It should be noted that there are extensive areas of mangroves along the Red Sea coast between Shalateen and the Sudan border and that the exact locations of these mangroves are not known in detail. The GEF Red Sea Project may provide more detailed information from recent surveys.

Saltmarshes are also sensitive to oil pollution. There are various types of saltmarsh vegetation. Reed marshes are dominated by Phragmites australis and Typha domingensis. Marshes are extremely productive and are valuable habitats for many species. They are essential habitats for numerous birds, both as roosting and breeding sites for resident species and stopover and feeding grounds for migrants. Large reed marshes are found in the coastal lakes along the Mediterranean shore. However, these marsh areas are enclosed within the lakes which are only connected to the sea through narrow gaps.

Around 70% of the bird species encountered in Egypt are migratory species which are found in Egypt only on a seasonal basis. The coasts of Egypt are situated along extremely important migration routes for birds and there are very important wintering areas for water birds along the coast.

The migrating birds pass a number of internationally important bottlenecks along the Mediterranean and Red Sea Coast (Zaranik, Ras Mohammed, Suez, Am Sukhna and Gabel Zeit). Very large concentrations of migrants can be found in the spring and autumn in these areas including a high percentage of the world population of several species. The lakes along the Mediterranean shores of Egypt and the Bitter Lakes are among the most important areas for migrating and wintering waterbirds in the Black Sea/Eastern Mediterranean region of the entire continent of Africa. Significant concentrations of the world populations of a number of species are found in these wetlands.

The islands in the Red Sea are important breeding grounds for birds, especially gulls and terns, including the globally threatened White-eyed Gull (Larus leucophthalmus). This species only breeds on the Red Sea Islands. In the early 1980s it was estimated that over 30% of the world population of White-eyed Gull breeds on Egypt’s northern Red Sea islands.

The mangroves in the Red Sea are important habitats for birds. Several species of birds are residents of the mangroves, the most prominent being the Spoonbill, Reef Heron, Green Heron and Ospreys. Many migratory and wintering shore birds use the mangroves for food and shelter, which is, otherwise, extremely scarce along the arid Egyptian Red Sea coast.

Waterbirds are perhaps the most prominent victims of oil spills at sea. There are three types of effects:

The sensitivity to oil for various groups of birds differs considerably. Table A8.2 gives a ranking of the vulnerability to oil spills of various groups of water birds.

The risk of oil pollution to bird species not normally associated with water is, of course, much lower than that of waterbirds. However, certain migrating non-water birds, such as birds of prey and storks, can be affected. During migration birds often land to rest along the shoreline or to soak their feet in the tidal zone to cool down.

The risk of oil pollution in Egyptian coastal lakes is much lower than in the marine environment proper, however, the impacts of oil pollution could be potentially more severe as there are much greater numbers of birds utilising the lakes.

Areas of national and international importance for birds which may be affected by an oil spill are shown on the maps in the GIS. A database is attached to the symbols on the map. The database contains infbnnation on: site name, positions, area of site, habitats utilised by birds, national legal status of the site, international status of the site, significance for birds including remarks on seasons, occurrence of globally threatened species, groups of birds encountered at the site, most important species of birds present and remarks on internationally important numbers of birds on the site.

Sea turtles are listed as globally threatened species and they are very sensitive to oil pollution. Nesting sites are particularly vulnerable and are therefore considered to be priority areas for protection.

Three species are known to breed in Egypt: the Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta), the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea ) and Olive (Ridley) Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) are also known from Egyptian waters. The status for these species is indicated in Table A8.3.

The Red Sea seems to be more important for nesting sea turtles than the Mediterranean. The Red Sea Islands are especially important. However, it should be stressed that sea turtles have not yet been adequately surveyed in Egypt. Surveys for sea turtles are particularly needed along the Delta and North Sinai coasts as well as the Red Sea.

Table A8.3: Status of Sea Turtles in Egypt

Turtles lay their eggs on sandy beaches during summer. The peak nesting period is June-July. The females bury the eggs in the sand. The nests are normally located above the high tide level and the turtles prefer nesting on isolated beaches.

After a 50-70 day incubation period, hatchlings emerge and move rapidly to the sea. In the first period at sea, the juveniles stay in the pelagic zone where they are carried by the currents. Later the juveniles leave the pelagic and move to benthic foraging grounds.

Green turtles feed on sea-grasses and are consequently mainly found at sea-grass beds. Hawksbill turtles are encountered at coral reefs where they feed on sponges and soft corals.

Turtles are vulnerable to oil, eggs and juveniles being the most sensitive stages. The hatchlings are especially at risk when they dig their way out of the nest and enter the water. If oil is stranded on a nesting beach the juveniles inevitably have to cross an oiled part of the beach and they become smeared in oil. This may cause skin irritation and surface lesions which may weaken them. In severe cases they may die.

During their first period in the sea the young juveniles stay in surface waters and the risk of encounter with oil slicks is therefore high. Young turtles which have been exposed to oil in water may suffer from a wide number of injuries (disturbed diving and respiratory patterns, decreased blood glucose levels, reddening and sloughing off of the skin and dysfunctioning of the salt glands). These injuries may eventually cause the death of the animal.

The eggs are also very vulnerable to oil when buried in the sand. Fresh crude oil on the sand surface significantly affects the hatching success of eggs. If eggs are exposed to a light dosage of oil mixed in sand, the hatchlings become considerably smaller in terms of weight and size than normal. Fortunately, in cases of stranding of oil on the beach, direct oiling of eggs is not likely except during storms because the eggs are usually laid above the high tide mark.

Adults may experience skin irritation or surface lesions if coated with oil. They may also consume tar balls which coat their mouth hampering feeding ability.

The locations of known turtle nesting sites are indicated on the maps in the GIS by a symbol. A database is attached to each symbol with information on: site name, position, species and number of breeding turtles on the site.

Data on occurrence of marine mammals in Egyptian waters are scarce. Dolphins and dugong (Dugong dugong) occur in the Red Sea. Dolphins are seldom directly impacted by oil spills. There are no documented accounts of oil spill impacts on dugongs, but as the dugong is a globally threatened species, dugong habitats should be protected from oil spills. The dugong is a rare resident of the Egyptian part of the Red Sea. The main areas for dugongs are large sea-grass beds on which they feed.

The locations of known dugong sites are indicated on the maps in the GIS by a symbol. A database containing site name, position and remarks is attached to each symbol.

Protected areas and endangered species have a high priority for protection during an oil spill.

The Law concerning Natural Protectorates (Law No. 102 of 1983) created the framework for the establishment of natural protectorates in Egypt. The National Parks Department of EEAA is responsible for implementation of Law No. 102 and supervising the national network of parks. To date, 17 Protected Areas have been established in Egypt representing a wide range of critical ecosystems. Two National Parks, five Protected Areas and one Biosphere Reserve are found along Egypt’s Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts. These are:

According to Law 102/1983, all fauna and flora found in the Protected Areas is strictly protected. The law prohibits "any activity or practice leading to the destruction, degradation and spoiling of the natural ecology or any harm to the terrestrial, aquatic or plant life or causes any damage to the aesthetics of the area."

The protected areas are indicated on the maps In the GIS, attached databases contain information on: site name, positions, area, national legal status, international status, significance for plants and animals in general, significance for birds and remarks.

In the Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Aqaba and in the Red Sea sea-grass occurs within the lagoons in the coral fringe. Sea-grass beds are important nursery areas for reef fish and shrimps. They are also feeding grounds for many fish, for Green Turtles and for Dugong.

Sea-grass beds have not been mapped systematically in Egypt. During the field survey carried out for the NOSCP project, the survey teams noted the occurrence of sea-grass off the visited beaches. The data collected during the beach survey is the main source of information for the mapping. A little information was also found in the literature.

In most cases oil will flow above the sea-grass without causing damage. However sea-grass beds may be affected if oil is brought in contact with sea-grass. Various types of sea-grass beds can be ranked with respect to sensitivity to oil as indicated in Table A8.4.

Table A8.4: Sensitivity of various types of sea-grass beds

The sites where sea-grass were observed during the field survey are indicated on the maps in the GIS. Locations mentioned in the literature are also marked. The ranking of sea-grass beds indicated in Table A8.4 has not been used on the sensitivity maps in the GIS. All sea-grass beds have been ranked equal for the National Contingency Plan for which the present ranking in the GIS has been prepared. For local plans dealing with smaller geographical areas the ranking according to high , medium and low vulnerability could be applied.

Oil components are toxic to fish. However, the toxicity varies a great deal with the life stage of the fish:

Generally, toxic concentrations of oil components are confined to the uppermost parts of the water column beneath an oil slick. Larvae, eggs, juveniles and adults at risk are those encountered in the upper water masses. However, in cases where oil is actively dispersed by the application of dispersants, the risk of toxic effects in deeper water increases. In addition the toxicity increases.

In the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba most fish are associated with the coral reefs. There is a vast amount of species. In the Red Sea as a whole 800 different species of fish are encountered. The number of species decreases from the south to the north. In the Gulf of Suez, the abundance of reef fish is small due to the scarcity of coral reefs.

Most of the fish on the reef lay pelagic eggs and the larvae are also planktonic. Eggs and larvae stay on shallow water on the reefs and are therefore highly vulnerable to an oil spill.

Generally reef fish are not migrating. Spawning therefore takes place all along the coast of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The spawning periods for the most important fish families associated with coral reefs are indicated in Table A8.5.

Table A8.5: Spawning periods for various families of coral reef fish

The abundance of fish on coral reefs is largest on the upper part of the reef front and on the shallow lagoons towards the coast (i.e. generally on waters less than 2 m depth). Adult fish are therefore also at risk in the case of an oil slick entering the reef

The number of fish species in the Mediterranean Sea is less, but there are a number of commercially very important species.

Many fish species, the commercially most important being Mullet and Sea Bass, use the brackish water at the Nile estuary as spawning and nursery grounds. Spawning takes place immediately offshore and the young fish grow up in the river mouths before migrating to the sea.

Lake Manzala and the other coastal lakes with connection to the sea are very important spawning and nursery areas for a number of fish species (sea-bass, sea-bream and mullet) and for shrimps.

Known spawning and nursery areas for fish not associated with coral reefs are indicated with symbols on the GIS.

Tourism

The tourism industry plays a vital role in the national economy of Egypt and is planned to be significantly further developed.

An oil spill may cause economic loss to the tourism industry. Tourist areas have been given a high priority in the priority ranking for protection and clean-up, due to the grea importance for the Egyptian economy.

Fortunately tourist beaches are usually easy to clean; they are generally composed of fine grained sand and good access roads to the beaches are available. Impacts on coral reefs which are important for the tourism industry may be more serious.

Stretches of coastline which are exploited by the tourism industry are shown on the maps in the GIS. The information was collected during the field surveys in December 1996 - March 1997 and is subject to change as more sites are developed. Diving sites which are important for tourism are also indicated on the GIS.

Aquaculture and fisheries

There are large fish farms between Damietta and Port Said. Ponds for the breeding of Tilapia, sea-bream and mullet have been constructed in the area between the sea and Uke Manzala. The ponds are connected to the sea via canals which provide renewal of the water in the ponds. There are similar fish farms east of Alexandria and at Lake Burullus.

These facilities are very vulnerable to oil spills. If oil contaminated water enters a fish pond, the fish may become tainted and unsuitable for human consumption. Larger amounts of oil could destroy the pond and repair would be very costly. On the other hand, if the farm owners are warned in due time, it is not too difficult to prevent severe damage.

The most important fishery areas in Egyptian waters are located in the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Suez. In the Mediterranean there are important fishing grounds close to the shore between Alexandria and Al Arish, i.e off the Nile Delta and the coastal lakes. Fishing mainly takes place in water depths of 10-50 m and is carded out with trawl, purse seine, beach seine, gill nets and trammel nets. Fish, shrimps and Donax mussels are caught. The Gulf of Suez is also an important fishing area. Trawl and purse seine are the most common types of gear. Both fish and shrimps are caught.

The location of fish farms, fishing grounds and fish landing sites are indicated on tile maps in the GIS.

Other Human Uses

An oil spill may cause damage in urban areas, harbours and ports. Oiling of seawater intakes of desalination plants will especially cause severe problems.

The location of urban areas, industrial areas and harbours are shown on the maps in the GIS.